Anatomical Sciences

The Arabian oryx inhabits an environment where summer ambient
temperatures can exceed 40 °C for extended periods of time. While the oryx uses a suite of adaptations that aid survival, the effects of this extreme environment on inactivity are unknown. To determine how the oryx manages inactivity seasonally, we measured the daily rhythm of body temperature and used fine-grain actigraphy, in 10 animals, to reveal when the animals were inactive in relation to ambient temperature and photoperiod. We demonstrate that during the cooler winter months, the oryx was inactive during the cooler parts of the 24-h day (predawn hours), showing a nighttime (nocturnal) inactivity pattern. In contrast,
in the warmer summer months, the oryx displayed a bimodal inactivity
pattern, with major inactivity bouts (those greater than 1 h) occurring equally during both the coolest part of the night (predawn hours) and the warmest part of the day (afternoon hours). Of note, the timing of the daily rhythm of body temperature did not vary seasonally, although the amplitude did change, leading to a seasonal alteration in the phase relationship between inactivity and the body temperature rhythm. Because during periods of inactivity the oryx were presumably asleep for much of the time, we speculate that the daytime shift in inactivity may allow the oryx to take advantage of the thermoregulatory physiology
of sleep, which likely occurs when the animal is inactive for more than 1
h, to mitigate environmentally induced increases in body temperature.

The Arabian oryx, Oryx leucoryx, is a member of the superorder Cetartiodactyla and is native to the Arabian Desert. The desert environment can be considered extreme in which to sleep, as the ranges of temperatures experienced are beyond what most mammals encounter. The current study describes the nuclear organization and neuronal morphology of the systems that have been implicated in sleep control in other mammals for the Arabian oryx. The nuclei delineated include those revealed immunohistochemically as belonging to the cholinergic, catecholaminergic, serotonergic and orexinergic systems within the basal forebrain, hypothalamus, midbrain and pons. In addition, we examined the GABAergic neurons and their terminal networks surrounding or within these nuclei. The majority of the neuronal systems examined followed the typical mammalian organizational plan, but some differences were observed: (1) the neuronal morphology of the cholinergic laterodorsal tegmental (LDT) and pedunculopontine tegmental (PPT) nuclei, as well as the parvocellular subdivision of the orexinergic main cluster, exhibited Cetartiodactyl-specific features; (2) the dorsal division of the catecholaminergic anterior hypothalamic group (A15d), which has not been reported in any member of the Artiodactyla studied to date, was present in the brain of the Arabian oryx; and (3) the catecholaminergic tuberal cell group (A12) was notably more expansive than previously seen in any other mammal. The A12 nucleus has been associated functionally to osmoregulation in other mammals, and thus its expansion could potentially be a species specific feature of the Arabian oryx given their native desert environment and the need for extreme water conservation.

The Arabian oryx, a moderately large mammal that inhabits a harsh desert environment, has been shown to exhibit seasonal variations in activity and inactivity patterns. Here we analyzed the continuous year-round activity patterns of twelve free-roaming Arabian oryx under natural conditions from two varying desert environments in Saudi Arabia using abdominally implanted activity meters. We simultaneously recorded weather parameters at both sites to determine whether environmental factors are responsible for temporal niche switching as well as the seasonal structuring and timing of this behavioural plasticity. Our results demonstrate that Arabian oryx undergo temporal niche switching of 24 h activity patterns at a seasonal level and exhibit distinct nocturnal/crepuscular activity during summer, diurnal activity during winter and intermittent patterns of behaviour during the transitional seasons of autumn and spring. In addition, the oryx exhibited inter- and intra-seasonal variations in the temporal budgeting of 24 h activity patterns. Strong relationships with both photoperiod and ambient temperatures were found and in some instances suggested that increasing ambient temperatures are a primary driving force behind seasonal shifts in activity patterns. These adaptive patterns may be dictated by the availability of food and water, which in turn are strongly influenced by seasonal climate variations. Overall, the adaptive responses of free-roaming Arabian oryx in such harsh and non-laboratorial conditions provide a framework for comparing wild populations as well as aiding conservation efforts.

Introduction: The Arabian oryx, a large mammal, successfully inhabits the Arabian deserts where climate undergoes extreme shifts seasonally. It is known the oryx employ multiple physiological and behavioural adaptions in order to survive: however, it is currently unknown whether such harsh conditions have led to the evolution of any neural adaptations within the sleep system neuroanatomy or have any effects on inactivity and sleep patterns. Methods: Sleep/ inactivity throughout the summer and winter season was examined by fine-grain actigraphy in free-roaming oryx (n=9). Sleep neuroanatomy was examined by immunohistochemistry of the cholinergic, catecholaminergic, serotonergic and orexinergic systems within the basal forebrain, hypothalamus and pons (n=3). Inactivity/ sleep variations and core body temperature (Tc) were determined in relation to ambient temperature and light levels in the Mahazat as-Sayd Protected Area, Saudi Arabia. Results: The sleep system neuroanatomy follows the typical mammalian organization with only minor differences. The oryx show typical diurnal Artiodactyl patterns of inactivity/ sleep during winter with the major sleep/ inactivity occurring predawn. In contrast, during the hotter summer month the oryx shift to a crepuscular activity pattern with the major sleep/ inactive bouts now split between predawn hours (coldest part of night) and the afternoon (hottest part of day). No seasonal differences were observed for daily rhythm of Tc alongside sleep/ inactivity patterns. Conclusion: Through dual-phasing between seasons, the oryx appear able to employ standard sleep thermoregulatory processes to circumvent major Tc increases. This possibly represents a novel thermoregulatory mechanism considering the sleep neuroanatomy appears typical and unspecialized in contrast to the unique sleep/ inactivity patterns. The results present a desynchronization of circadian rhythms (Tc, sleep timing and daily activity patterns) during summer and it seems indicative of more than one primary zeitgeber (light & temperature). The summer-based natural desynchronization of circadian rhythms and seasonal dual-phasing seen in free-roaming Arabian oryx appears novel and unreported thus far. Support (If Any): Funding by the National Plan for Science, Technology and Innovation, Deanship of Scientific Research at the King Saud University, Vice Deanship of Research Chairs, the South African National Research Foundation (NRF) and German Academic Exchange Service (DAAD) and lastly the South Africa Research Chair for Mammal Behavioural Ecology.

Arabian oryx, Oryx leucoryx, are members of the superorder Cetartiodactyla and belong within the family Bovidae. They are native to the Arabian Desert and are currently listed as “vulnerable” on the IUCN red data list. The current study describes the nuclear organization and neuronal morphology of the systems involved in the generation and control of the sleep-wake cycle in the Arabian oryx. The systems examined included the cholinergic, catecholaminergic, serotonergic and orexinergic as well as the GABAergic neurons associated with these nuclei. The aim of the study was to identify these neural systems and to compare the results to that reported for other members of Cetartiodactyla and mammals in general. The majority of the neuronal systems examined followed the typical mammalian organizational plan; however, some differences were observed: (1) the neuronal morphology of the cholinergic laterodorsal tegmental (LDT) and pedunculopontine tegmental (PPT) nuclei as well as the parvocellular subdivision of the orexinergic main cluster exhibited Cetartiodactyl-specific features; (2) the dorsal division of the catecholaminergic anterior hypothalamic group (A15d), which has not been reported in any member of the Cetartiodactyla studied to date, was present in the brain of the Arabian oryx; and (3) the catecholaminergic tuberal cell group (A12) was notably more expansive than previously seen in any other mammal. The A12 nucleus has been associated functionally to osmoregulation in other mammals, and thus its expansion could potentially be a species specific feature of the Arabian oryx given their native desert environment and the need for water conservation.

Introduction: The Arabian oryx, a large desert dwelling mammal, successfully inhabits the Arabian deserts in which climate undergoes extreme shifts throughout the seasons of the year. Summer ambient temperatures often exceed general mammalian thermoneutral zones for prolonged periods. The Arabian oryx are known to employ multiple behavioural and physiological adaptations in order to survive such extreme environments; however, the effects on inactivity and sleep are so far unknown. Methods: To investigate how oryx successfully sleep and manage inactivity throughout the year both fine and coarse-grain actigraphy was utilized in 16 male, free-roaming oryx. Inactivity/ sleep variations were determined in relation to ambient temperature and light levels in the Saudi Arabian Desert. Results: The results demonstrate that oryx show typical diurnal Artiodactyl patterns of inactivity/ sleep during the cooler winter months with the major sleep/ inactivity occurring pre-dawn (coldest part of night). In contrast, during the hotter summer months the oryx shift to a crepuscular activity pattern with the major sleep/ inactive bouts now split between pre-dawn hours (coldest part of night) and the afternoon (hottest part of day). No seasonal shifts were observed for daily rhythm of core body temperature alongside the shifts in sleep/ inactivity throughout the year. It appears the transitional periods from winter diurnal activity to summer crepuscular activity occur in May and then reverse in September. Discussion: By diverting half the major summer sleep bouts to the afternoon, the oryx appear able to employ standard sleep thermoregulatory processes to circumvent major core body temperature increases. This possibly novel thermoregulatory mechanism in response to the desynchronization of circadian rhythms (core body temperature, sleep timing and daily activity patterns) during summer seems indicative of more than one primary zeitgeber. This study possibly establishes the first naturally occurring desynchronization of circadian rhythms and possible occurrence of both light and temperature as primary zeitgebers entraining different daily rhythms.

Study Objectives
The Arabian oryx lives under hyperarid conditions in the Arabian Desert and exhibits temporal niche switching of activity patterns at a seasonal level. The objective of the current study was to provide a polysomnographic-based study of sleep in free-roaming Arabian oryx in their natural habitat to determine whether extreme seasonal climate variations resulted in changes in sleep patterns and physiology associated with the seasonal switching of temporal niches.

Methods
Electroencephalography, nuchal electromyography, actigraphy, and subcutaneous temperature were recorded in free-roaming Arabian oryx in the Mahazat as-Sayd Protected Area, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia during winter and summer.

Results:
Total daily sleep time in winter was 6.69 and 3.77 hr in summer. In winter, oryx exhibited nocturnal sleep typical of artiodactyls of around 60 kg body mass. In summer, oryx slept mostly during the day and subcutaneous temperature was seen to rise during sleep, but not as rapidly as the rises observed in ambient air temperature. Rapid eye movement sleep formed a very small percentage of total sleep time, especially so in the summer.

Conclusions
The unusual sleep patterns and physiology during summer appear to be related to high ambient air temperatures that affect both intrinsic and extrinsic factors necessary for survival. The Arabian oryx appears to use sleep physiology as an adaptive thermoregulatory mechanism in the hot summer months.

The evolution and function of sleep remains an enigma in modern science. Significant variation can be observed within species and across taxa. Little is understood about how sleep exists, or presents itself in species surviving in extreme conditions. For example, harsh desert ecosystems with notably lower survival rates for resident species. It has been hypothesized that specialized sleep-related behaviours impact thermoregulation to promote survival advantage. The threatened Arabian oryx (Oryx leucoryx), a member of the Cetartiodactyl superorder, is a large desert dwelling ungulate species successfully residing in the arid zones of the Middle East. Arabian Oryx exhibit numerous morphophysiological adaptations and capabilities to cope with their harsh environment. The current thesis provides an examination of the neuroanatomy, physiology and behavioural patterns related to sleep in wild, free-roaming Arabian oryx under natural conditions. It was our objective to determine whether the extreme conditions and climate of the Arabian Desert has led to novelties within the organization of the oryx’s sleep related neuronal architecture, seasonal behaviour patterns and sleep physiology. Using immunohistochemistry and stereology our results indicate the sleep related nuclei in the brain of the oryx exhibit a typical mammalian organizational plan with additional order-specific and novel, species- specific features. Actigraphy revealed that oryx exhibit temporal niche switching patterns seasonally presenting with winter diurnal- and summer nocturnal activity and intermittent patterns during the transitional periods of spring and autumn. Polysomnography results indicate novel sleep patterns between seasons and physiologically confirm activity-based temporal niche switching at a seasonal level. Our work covers the first examination of the Arabian oryx brain sleep centers as well as its year-long activity patterns. Importantly, it is the first examination of physiological
sleep in wild mammals within a desert environment. Our results suggest that ambient temperature acts a dominant driving force for the adaptive behavioural and physiological features described. The Arabian oryx is a remarkable species, well adapted to such an extreme environment and its highly plastic survival mechanisms appear unique. Considering the continual desertification of our planet and the predicted consequences of climate change, knowledge of such species and their continued conservation is of vital importance.

An essential part of paleopathology is the study of diet and nutrition as well as inferring aspects of diet and nutrition from the skeletal pathology. Interpretation of nutritional and metabolic disease-related pathologies often provides additional insight into the daily social and cultural practices of people. However, precise diagnoses of specific vitamin-related deficiencies in archaeological skeletal remains are still quite problematic and specific diagnoses are rarely possible. This partly stems from the fact that many nutritional or metabolic diseases do not necessarily result in an osteological response and when they do, the comorbidity and analogous osteological responses to vitamin deficiencies may hamper the definite diagnosis of nutrition-related disease. Clin. Anat. 00:000– 000, 2016. V C 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

In 1996, during ground-laying work for the construction of Main Reef Road in Krugersdorp, South Africa, human skeletal remains were inadvertently uncovered. The identities of the people interred in these graves were unknown. Since these individuals have never been identified and the context of the cemetery never confirmed, this study attempts to identify the remains within their historical context by using techniques derived from bioarchaeology. Archaeological and archival information suggests that these individuals were buried in a pauper's cemetery on the premises of the Lancaster Gold Mining Company, and that they were most probably interred somewhere between 1895 and 1914. Individual osteobiological profiles and possible indicators of trauma and pathology are identified. Results suggest a MNI of 19 individuals, representative of African men and women of mostly young adult and adolescent ages. Infectious disease and non-specific signs of disease indicate the general poor health and harsh living and working conditions often associated with migrant labour. Based on the bioarchaeological findings, the Lancaster sample represents early migrant workers who moved to the Witwatersrand area prior to the implementation of the closed-compound system. These people probably worked on gold mines as unskilled mine labourers or in the low-income sector in the nearby towns, lived in informal settlements, and died as paupers. Even though these people remain unnamed, their remains enable us to reconstruct some aspects of their lives, in some sense giving a voice to a small group of people representative of the millions of migrant workers who shaped South Africa's industrial economy.

Several studies have indicated that the time of onset of specific age-related changes throughout the human skeleton differs between populations. In this study the well-known Suchey-Brooks pubic symphyseal age estimation method was investigated to assess its performance in a white South African population. A total of 184 well-preserved os coxae were subjected to blind phase analysis, using the Suchey-Brooks descriptions and pubic symphyseal casts. The method performed well in a white South African population with statistically significant moderate positive correlations and relatively low biases in both males and females. However, due to the underperformance of the method in older individuals, new age ranges for phases IV through VI were created that are specific to the South African white population. This study indicated that Suchey-Brooks method can be used in a white South African population using the age ranges for phases I through III provided by Brooks and Suchey (1990), and the population specific age ranges for phase IV and V provided in this study.